Free Market Economy and Financial Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Free Market Economy and Financial Crisis - Essay Example The companies had come to this point of crisis because free market had allowed them to make investments due to which the institutions were posed to risks. Millions of people in America lost their jobs and had their savings bushed. A number of factors have been blamed for this crisis but economists believe that free market is the very basic factor amongst all. Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz wrote in his book Freefall that market fundamentalists and deregulators are responsible for the mess. The situation showed that free-market economists failed and market fundamentalists were responsible for the economic crunch (Sorman 2010). The economy of United States of America witnessed only a few minor recessions each for a short period of time. Those recessions did not stir the economy enough to cause economists to develop a well descriptive recession model. With no major recessions over a long time, the economists tend to believe that the crisis may not happen. The model derived by free marke t economists was running a healthy economy from 80s to 2008 making economists believe that the model may not turn the situation upside down (Sorman 2010). The free market economists argue that it is the recession that prompted the financial crisis and not the other way around. Economists believe that recession began in 2007 when consumer spending decreased, overdue borrowing increased and lack of interest of homeowners in their mortgaged houses increased. They claim that the failure of financial derivatives were not the cause of financial turmoil as they were helping in the stabilization of the economy. Economists assume that due to a sudden economic downfall government faced pressure from political and non political forces to take immediate steps. This led to government spending and its intervention in the scenario which seemed quite logical at that time. The situation worsened with new public debts and regulations which stumbled upon the recovery of the economy (Sorman 2010; Bordo et al 2010). The economy could be recoiled in a quicker way if government had allowed enterprises to survive on their own by dealing with the crisis with an astute strategic approach. It is also believed that the financial turmoil was brought about by the recession but the initial slump was the result of energy cost as well. The US expenditure of energy as expressed in percentage of total spending had droppedfrom 8 to 5 percent between 1979 and 2004. The price of gasoline had hit $4 per gallon by June 2008, representing a sharp shift in energy share of total spending back to 7 per cent. The shift was due to the increased demand from evolving economies like China and India which soared up the prices. The price grabbed attention as the spending pattern showing a considerable upward movement was an indication of disruption. The unit sales of light truck curtailed by 23 per cent in the second quarter of 2008 in comparison to the preceding year’s 2nd quarter.The auto manufacturin g industry cut over 125,000 jobs during the same period. The energy prices affected transportation and hence the housing sector as the houses in the suburban region lost their value and attraction. Failure of the mortgage market came up as another blow in 2007, prior to the financial cri

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Law - Essay Example The legal relationship creates rights and obligations between the parties and binds only between those who are privy to the contract, and not other people who are not parties (often described in law books as â€Å"strangers† or by the misnomer â€Å"third parties†) even though those people may be affected by the contract directly or indirectly (p. 15). Usually the agreement will contain a promise or set of promises that each party has made to the other: this is known as bilateral contract because each party promises to do something. For example, X promises to build a house for Y and Y promises to pay X for doing so. Sometimes only one party will make a promise to do something if the other party actually does something stipulated by the former1. For example, X promises to pay $100 if Y completes and returns a marketing questionnaire to X. Such a contract is known as a unilateral contract because the promise is one-sided. Although X promised to pay in the stipulated circumstances, Y is under no obligation to complete and return the marketing questionnaire but if he does the court or arbitral tribunal will recognize a binding agreement that X will pay him $1002. In building projects daring negotiations for the award of a formal contract one sometimes finds so-called letters of intent expressed in terms such as these: â€Å"Please pr oceed with the works and if no formal contract is concluded we will pay you your costs and expenses that you have incurred† (Richard & Stone 2005, p. 115). It is often not appreciated that a letter in such terms can create a unilateral contract which the court will enforce, albeit not the formal contract which the parties had hoped to finalize. And although one often talks of a â€Å"written† or â€Å"formal† contract it is not really the piece of paper which itself is the contract – the piece of paper merely records what the terms of the contract are

Lephalale Exxaro Training Centre

Lephalale Exxaro Training Centre The purpose of this report is to provide a description of the period of vacation work spent at Exxaro Resources Grootegeluk mine. The requirement was set to the student to spend time with and work with artisans in their everyday environment to gain valuable practical training and experience. The training provided a broad overview of the environment that an engineer can be exposed to and must be able to handle during his or her practice. A comprehensive understanding of different disciplines was attained by working with diesel mechanics, millwrights, electricians and fitters. Tasks completed range from the manufacturing and assembly of components to the maintenance of existing systems and troubleshooting of systems that dont function as expected. The incorporation of a study of personnel management added another dimension to the training period by informing the student about the enabling, employee lifecycle and supportive services offered to the employee to ensure a satisfying and adv ancing working environment. INTRODUCTION Exxaro Resources Ltd is a South African mining company that owns coal, mineral sands, base metals as well as industrial metal related assets. The majority of its revenue is however generated by its coal mining business units. Exxaros Coal Mining Division is established as the fourth largest producer of coal in South Africa with eight different coal mines throughout the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces under their control. Exxaros Grootegeluk Coal mine in Ellisras in the Limpopo province is an open-cast coal mine with the largest coal beneficiation facility in the world. It supplies power station coal to the Matimba Power Station and also produces coking coal for use in the production of steel, as well as high quality metallurgical coal. It is also the home of the Medupi power station expansion project which, after completion will lead to Grootegeluk being the largest open-cast mining facility in the world. CONTENT 2.1. PRACTICAL TRAINING 2.1.1. SECONDARY MINING MAINTENANCE 2.1.1.1. INTRODUCTION The central workshop on the Grootegeluk site is responsible for tasks such as repair, maintenance, assembly and fabrication. The workshop is divided into three sections, namely Mining Maintenance, Plating and Refurbishment. The secondary mining maintenance section situated in the central workshop on the Grootegeluk site is primarily responsible for the maintenance of the water trucks, tippers, low-beds and smaller trackless mobile machinery. Time was spent working in this section, in cooperation with diesel mechanics, to acquire knowledge of the maintenance and operation of the trucks. 2.1.1.2. TRUCK INVENTORY 3 water trucks and 3 tippers are required to operate at any time. The trucks used are supplied by Caterpillar and are classified as the CAT 777 models. The models that operate on the mine currently are the CAT 777D and CAT 777F models. The plan at the moment is to phase out the CAT 777D trucks and incorporate the newer CAT 777F models. 2.1.1.3. LAYOUT OF CHASSIS AND POWER TRAINs A major advantage of the fact that the CAT 777 models are being used is the fact that the chassis and power train can be used interchangeably between trucks that are of the same model. Depending on what is required, either a water tank or bucket can be mounted on the chassis making it a versatile alternative to the purchasing of trucks manufactured for specific purposes only. The trucks are powered by an 870 horsepower, 27.9 litre engine. The power from the engine is sent through a torque converter, which is followed by a prop shaft leading to a semi-automatic transmission, differential and the left and right rear final drives. The basic layout of the truck can be shown as follows: 2 2.1.1.4. WATER TRUCKS Responsibility of water trucks: Spray water on the mine roads to reduce the amount of dust caused by the passing of trucks and mine machinery In the event of a fire on the mine, the water trucks may be used to extinguish the fire by use of a nozzle mounted on the front Capacity: The total load carrying capacity of the water trucks depends on the model. The capacity of the tank on the older CAT 777D trucks is 80000 litres while the tank on the newer CAT 777F has a slightly larger capacity of 82000 litres. Pump and spray system: A centrifugal pump system is used at the back of the truck to pump water from the tank to the spray nozzles. Water flows down from the tank into the pump where it is then rerouted upwards into the piping system leading to the spray nozzles. The spray nozzles then project a jet of water at a small obstruction which again changes the direction of travel causing the water to disperse Diagram of piping: Diagram of side view of spray nozzles 2.1.1.5. TIPPERS Responsibility of tippers: Waste and overburden in the mine is defined as rock and soil that cannot be used for the extraction of product. It also includes the waste produced during the extraction of the product. Because of the small amount of coal content that might still be present in the waste there is always a risk of spontaneous combustion. The tippers are responsible for moving and dumping red sand and topsoil on the waste dumps and the areas around the pit to shield the area from intense direct sunlight and reduce the probability of spontaneous combustion. The tippers also operate occasionally in the pit together with front-end loaders to clean out small amounts of material that the shovels and larger trucks are unable to collect because of the lack of space for operation. Capacity: The load carrying capacity of the tippers is dependent upon the condition of the hydraulic system used to lift the bucket. Two hydraulic cylinders are used to lift the bucket and tip the load. In a brand new condition, the tippers are able to handle a load of 120 tons while a tipper that has been in service is typically only loaded up to 100 tons to ensure that the system will be able to dump the load. 2.1.1.6. SERVICING THE TRUCKS In the coal mining environment, the trucks are required to be serviced after every 300 hours of operation. During the training period, both the CAT 777F and CAT 777D models were serviced. The 300 hour service on the CAT 777D truck entails the following: Sampling 3 different samples of fluids were taken while the engine was still running Engine oil Transmission fluid Hydraulic fluid 6 more samples were taken after the engine was switched off Left front hub oil Right front hub oil Left final drive oil Right final drive oil Steering fluid Differential oil These samples were then sent to the mine laboratory. The samples are then analysed to check for the presence of iron filings or debris that could indicate the presence of wear on the components. Replacement of filters The sump plugs and used oil filters were removed to drain the engine oil Although the primary sump is the most important to be drained, the engine also has a small secondary sump that was also drained Used oil was caught in an oil trolley New oil filters were installed Diesel filters were removed New diesel filters were installed New steering filter was installed Checking the fluid levels The level of the oil in the final drives, front hubs, differential, hydraulic system and transmission were checked Transmission fluid was filled up Engine oil was filled up The servicing of the CAT 777F trucks was handled by certified Barloworld technicians, since the trucks have only been operating on the mine for a short time. Mechanics present in the workshop had to thoroughly observe the tasks that the technicians were performing in order to learn what needs to be done. Eventually the task of servicing will be handed over to the diesel mechanics. 2.1.1.7. DRIVING THE TRUCKS The trucks operate using as semi-automatic transmission. This transmission eliminates the need for a clutch pedal, leaving only a brake pedal and an accelerator pedal. A torque converter is however incorporated with the gearbox to fulfil the purpose of the clutch. Three different braking systems are available on the trucks. Operators seldom use the foot brake which exerts a braking force on the all four wheels of the truck because of the heat generated. The steering column is fitted with levers to operate two other braking systems. The retarder lever is primarily used to slow the truck down by exerting a braking force on the rear wheels. The secondary lever is a last resort for operators and, when pulled, exerts a braking force on all four of the trucks wheels simultaneously. When the trucks are stationary and the engine switched off, the park brake has to be engaged. Additional stop blocks are placed behind the wheels of the trucks to prevent them from rolling. When the truck needs to be driven the following steps are taken: Engage the park brake Engage the retarder lever Select the number of gears required from the transmission Disengage the park brake Disengage the retarder lever Press the accelerator pedal The transmission will shift through the number of gears selected Steer the truck 2.1.2. CENTRAL WORKSHOP: PLATING 2.1.2.1. INTRODUCTION The central plating workshop at Grootegeluk mine is responsible for the majority of the sheet metal work that needs to be done on the mine. Artisans in this section have the task of manufacturing and assembling components of structures or machinery in and around the mine. The plating workshop also has facilities to sandblast and spray the components manufactured. The majority of the workload of the workshop finds application in the production and beneficiation plants. Time was spent with boilermakers in order to gain an understanding of sheet metal work. 2.1.2.2. MATERIAL Mild steel and stainless steel are the dominating types of steel used in the workshop. The type of material used for an application is in some instances limited by the capabilities of the available machinery. 2.1.2.3. PREHEATING Preheating of materials is an advantageous process when welding has to be performed and aids in the assurance of a strong, quality weld. Four main reasons for preheating exist. Preheating of the metal reduces the rate at which the welded component cools down. Rapid cooling of the welded joint could cause shrinkage of the metal in the vicinity of the weld which eventually leads to the formation of cracks and reduces the strength of the weld. In materials with low ductility, the shrinkage stress in the weld area could cause extensive deformation of the component after welding. Preheating lessens the effect of distortion by giving the welder the opportunity to utilise a momentary increase in ductility during the welding process. When the temperature of the parent material that is being used is too low, it can cause the deposited electrode metal to cool rapidly, leading to the prevention of the fusion of the metals. Preheating lowers the risk of this situation occurring. The amount of preheating required is dependent upon the thickness and configuration of the plates to be welded. The final reason for preheating relates to the presence of moisture on the surface of the metal. If the surface of the metal is wet during the welding process it could lead to the rejection of the weld or an accelerated tempo of surface crack formation in the welding region. 2.1.2.4. TIPS FOR FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING The flux-cored arc welding used in the workshop uses a wire electrode which is shielded by an appropriate gas. In general, flux-cored wires are manufactured to function with either carbon dioxide or a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide as shielding gas. The shielding gas prevents the spark from causing the uncontrolled dispersion or oxidation of the electrode metal. Flux-cored arc welding is generally performed by dragging the welding gun along the joint that needs to be welded. When welding t-joints it is important to maintain the welding gun at a 45à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼ angle to ensure that the electrode metal is evenly deposited in both pieces of metal. When completing butt welds the torch needs to remain in an upright position and should not deviate from the upright position by more than 15à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼. This will also ensure even distribution of the electrode metal during the welding process. 75à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼ 2.1.2.5. EQUIPMENT Welding Lincoln electric Idealarc DC-600 power source Direct current welding power source with a maximum current output of 850 A and maximum voltage output of 44 V Lincoln electric LN-25 PRO semi-automatic wire feeder Wire feeders are connected to the power source to feed electrode wire through the welding gun Tri-mark TM-791 Flux-cored electrode wire used in conjunction with CO2 as shielding gas Matweld Anti-spatter Silicone mat 0810 Spray canister that is used to prevent the spatter of electrode metal during the welding process The spray is applied to the welding gun Cutting torches: Two combinations of gases are used in the cutting torches. LP gas and oxygen are used together, or acetylene and oxygen Lighting the torch The operator opens the LPG or acetylene feed and lights the gas After the LPG or acetylene has been lit, the oxygen supply is opened to enhance the flame An optimal flame to cut metal with is a quiet flame of blue colour with no visible or distortions Application of torches Torches are primarily used to cut mild steel in the workshop. Torches cannot be used to cut stainless steel. Technically speaking torches do not cut, they burn the metal. Burning involves oxidation of the metal. The high temperature of the flame accelerates this oxidation process. Stainless steel has low iron content and will not rust in the presence of the flame. Automated cutting torch This machine has the ability to follow a shape by means of a proximity eye on a table at the left side of the machine, while simultaneously moving the torch in the exact same pattern to cut a component from metal plates on the right side of the machine. Shapes are drawn and cut out on a yellow plastic sheet. The edges of the shape are then painted white. The shape is then placed under the eye which follows the outline of the shape while cutting the metal in the same way. Plasma cutter: Cebora Plasma Prof 80 art 947 Uses only compressed air to make accurate cuts in metal up to a thickness of 20 mm and rough severance cuts up to 30 mm Operation: The plasma cutter used in the workshop utilises high pressure gas which is sent through a small tubular gun. The small tubular gun contains a negative electrode that creates a circuit when the gun is brought close to the metal. This electric spark caused by the circuit causes the gas to be heated into the plasma state of matter and reaches a temperature of about 16000à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼C. This extremely hot plasma then melts the metal that is being cut. The plasma cutter can be used to cut any metal. In the workshop it is used to cut stainless steel plates. Sandblasting equipment: Spartan engineering 800M pressure vessel 200 L capacity The purpose of the sandblasting equipment is to clean and remove paint from the surface of metal components which then prepares the surface to be spray painted. 2.1.2.6. TASKS OBSERVED Due to the nature of the precision and accuracy required to complete the jobs, most of the time in the workshop was spent observing and assisting. The following jobs were in progress: Manufacturing and assembly of waste buckets Waste buckets are used around the mine for different waste material. These waste buckets are made by the mine boilermakers. Three waste buckets were being built for use around the mine. Plates for the structure had to be cut, bent and welded together using a cutting torch, bending machine and welding machine. Basic side layout Basic front layout Wear plates Two sets of wear plates are used as sections of a vibrating beam in one of the assemblies in the plants One set of plates have six holes through which it fastens the beam The second set of plates are rectangular and support two springs Because of the magnitude of the forces acting on these wear plates, bearing failure of the plates occurs during operation. This wear is however allowed and monitored for a period of time before the beams are then removed and the worn out plates cut off New wear plates were manufactured according to specification Clamps for pipes Clamps were manufactured to fasten the pipes used in the plants Haulpak truck operators cab Boilermakers assembled the frame of an operators cab for one of the Haulpak trucks. Drawings were supplied giving detail of the cover plates that had to be fabricated, as well as assembly drawings to show the final required layout. The welds utilised were to be either 3 or 6 mm one-sided fillet welds. The M12 nuts that were used to assemble the frame also had to be tag welded. Extractor fan piping system Maintenance on the plants requires occasional replacement of the piping on the extractor fan system. A 6 pipe assembly was manufactured to replace the old system. Flanges were cut and holes for bolts were punched. Pipes were cut to the appropriate lengths and shapes after which flanges were welded onto the pipes. 2.1.3. GG 3/4/5 AND WASTE MANAGEMENT WORKSHOP 2.1.3.1. INTRODUCTION The GG 3/4/5 and waste management workshop at Grootegeluk mine is responsible for the mechanical and electrical maintenance of the GG 3,4 and 5 plants as well as the system set up to convey waste to the dumps. A wide variety of systems, from substations to conveyor belts, are the responsibility of the artisans in this workshop. Time was spent with fitters and electricians to gain an understanding of the tasks required. 2.1.3.2. TASKS COMPLETED Replacement of motors in GG 5 tunnel: After completing the necessary safety protocol the first task was to replace two 380 V electric motors in the GG 5 feeder tunnel. The job required both electricians and fitters to complete and was completed by these steps: Since the motors operate on a 380 V control voltage, the first task was to cut the electricity supply to the motors by isolating the breaker in the substation The new motors, weighing in at 118 kg each were carried down into the tunnel using a sling wound around the motors The electrical supply wires in the cable box were disconnected After disconnection, the bolts on the old motors were loosened and the old motors were removed The new motors were then hoisted into place by a small handheld portable crane The bolts were fastened to keep the motors in place The electrical supply wires in the cable box were reconnected The supply to the motors in the substation was switched on The final step was to check if the motors were in fact turning in the right direction Proximity sensors: The job relating to the proximity sensors required the attention of electricians and required thorough investigation into and troubleshooting of the wiring circuit leading to the sensor on the feeder motors. The proximity sensors kept burning when they switch after connection. The function of a proximity sensor is to detect the presence of a metal component within 5 mm of its periphery and takes the form of a small circular cylinder with a threaded outer casing and electronic components inside. These sensors are used to indicate to the operator whether the lever at the electric motors has been engaged. This prevents the motor from running without being engaged to the feeders. The troubleshooting followed a sequential path: First the cable leading from the junction box at the motors was followed back to the PLC in the substation The basic function of a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is to provide an electronic interface between the supply and the components The PLC can be set up to perform certain tasks during certain time intervals and can also receive and respond to inputs from other electronic components From the PLC the total length of the cable was divided into 4 sections PLC to distribution panel Distribution panel to junction box Junction box to cable box Cable box to proximity sensor The connection at the proximity sensor requires the presence of a live and neutral wire At first glance the suspicion was that both the wires available were live wires, thereby causing a short circuit when the proximity sensor switches A Meggar insulation tester was then used to test each length of cable The basic function of a Meggar is to test the magnitude of insulation between the conductor and the earth A low reading on the Meggar indicates the possible presence of a short circuit or damage to the wire insulation After the use of the Meggar the proximity sensor was sequentially wired into the circuit at each section and tested Eventually the short circuit was found between the cable box and the proximity sensor Servicing of slip ring motors; The high voltage electric motors used to drive the waste conveyor belt system are 6.6 kV slip ring motors. These motors need to be serviced regularly to ensure efficient functioning of the system and to prevent the motors from being damaged. Equipment needed: Meggar insulation tester Blower Cleaning solvent Extension cord In order to complete the service of the slip ring motor, the following steps had to be taken: The electrical supply to the motor was cut off by isolating the breaker in the substation The side cover panels of the electric motor were removed Twelve brushes inside the motor were then removed from the brush holders Special care had to be taken to make sure that the brushes dont touch each other The Meggar insulation tester was then connected to the slip rings Negative terminal connects to the body of the motor Positive terminal connects to the slip rings An initial reading of 640 MÃŽ © was recorded The control voltage on the motor is an indication of the reading required from the Meggar For a 6.6 kV motor the reading from the Meggar should at least be 6.6 kÃŽ © The Meggar was removed and the inside of the slip ring and brush casing was blown out with the blower After blowing out dust and fine copper, the slip rings and the inside of the casing were wiped with a cloth and solvent to remove the last bit of fine copper The Meggar was reconnected and a reading of 3.22 GÃŽ © was obtained which was adequate The side cover panels were replaced and the electrical supply to the motor was switched back on Replacement of a 6.6 kV slip ring motor: The 6.6 kV electric motors used for the conveyor system eventually deteriorate in such a manner that they cannot be brought back to an acceptable operating state by means of a service only. These motors then need to be replaced and are sent away to be properly refurbished if it is possible. The following steps were followed: The electric supply to the motor was cut off by isolating the breaker in the substation The electromagnetic drum brake was released and moved out of the way The shaft coupling (jaw coupling) between the shaft on the motor and the shaft on the gearbox was disengaged The panels covering the electrical phase terminals and winding terminals were removed and the supply cables were disconnected The next step was to loosen the bolts at the bottom that fasten the motor to the structural frame The old motor was then hoisted by means of a forklift and removed The new motor was then put in place The electric supply was reconnected to the phase and winding terminals The bolts at the bottom of the motor were fastened slightly and the shaft coupling replaced to prevent excessive movement of the motor Alignment of the shafts was then done Shaft coupling was properly engaged The bolts on the structural frame were fastened 2.1.4. CONVEYOR BELTS 2.1.4.1. INTRODUCTION A brief introduction was given to a typical engineering problem to provide insight into what is often required from engineers. The belt on the waste management system leading to the dump needs to be extended. This is causing problems in terms of the power required from the slip ring motors. The extension of the belt causes additional load to be hauled by the motors. The motors that are currently installed trip when started up on full load. Time was spent studying and applying calculation to determine the power required from the motors to drive the conveyor belt system. 2.1.4.2. POWER REQUIREMENTS OF CONVEYOR BELT SYSTEMS The governing factors relating to the power requirements of a conveyor belt system concerns the provision of the necessary force to overcome the resistances posed by the entire system. These resistances can be divided into 5 subsections: Main resistances FH Secondary resistances FN Special main resistances Fs1 Special secondary resistances Fs2 Slope resistance Fst Main resistances: The main resistances that the motors have to overcome relate to the resistance of the rotating idlers, the resistance by the movement of the empty belt, the resistance of the material to horizontal movement as well as the resistance of the belt due to a slope along its conveying length. The resistance posed by the rotation of the idlers is manifested in the form of the frictional resistance of the idler bearings and seals. Rotational inertia of the idlers also contributes to the resistance posed. The belt creates resistance by means of the indentation resistance of the belt on the rollers. The flexure of the belt and the material that the belt is made of also resists the movement of the belt. An overall calculation to determine the resistance due to rotation of idlers and movement of the empty belt takes the following form: FH1 = (qro + qru + 2qb cos ÃŽ ±) x f x L x g qro Mass per unit length of rotating idler parts on the carrying side [kg/m] qru Mass per unit length of rotating idler parts on the return side [kg/m] qb Mass per unit length of the belt [kg/m] ÃŽ ± Angle of inclination [degrees/radians] L Centre to centre conveyor length [m] g Gravitational acceleration [m/s2] f Friction factor due to idlers The mass of rotating idler parts and the mass per unit length of the belt itself is determined by means of the tables of specifications given in the design catalogue or procedure followed. This requires the belt width which can be decided upon or determined mathematically. These masses are then converted into mass per unit length by means of the following formulas: qro = mro/ao [kg/m] qru = mru/au [kg/m] ao carry side idler spacing au return side idler spacing The decision then needs to be made with regard to the selection of a friction factor. This is also specified by the design catalogue. The Phoenix Conveyor Belt Design Fundamentals catalogue provides the following guidelines for selection: f = 0.017 for well aligned belts with smooth running idlers and low friction f = 0.02 for normal applications f = 0.023 to 0.027 for harsh operating environments, high frictional forces and the occasional overloading of the belt The centre to centre distance can be described as the distance from the head to the tail of the conveying system and encompasses the total possible length over which material can be conveyed. This is usually a parameter that is pre-determined by the specific situation. Finally the calculation of the resistance due to the rotation of the idlers and the empty belt force can be done. The next calculation that needs to be done relates to the resistance of the material to being conveyed horizontally. FH2 = qm x L x g x f x cos ÃŽ ± [N] qm mass of the material per unit length that is being conveyed To calculate the value of qm needed in the above formula, the total capacity or throughput of the belt needs to known. qm = Qm/v [kg/m] Qm The capacity or thoughput of the conveyor system [kg/s] v velocity of the belt [m/s] The calculation for the resistance of the material to horizontal movement can now be done. The resistance posed by gravity due to a slope/gradient along the conveying length also needs to be taken into consideration. Fst = qm x H x g [N] H change in the elevation of the belt along the length [m] After this calculation, all the major primary resistances needed have been calculated Special main resistances: The friction caused by the movement of the belt past the chute flaps is regarded as an important factor that needs to be calculated as part of the power requirements. Secondary resistances: Secondary resistance to the movement of the belt takes into consideration the detail relating to the operation and design of the belt. When material is deposited onto the conveyor belt system, a force is required to accelerate the material in the direction of conveying. This force is manifested in the form of the change of momentum of the material when dropped onto the belt and. Additional resistance to movement is then imposed on the drive system. The presence of skirt plates in the vicinity of the chute to keep material from dropping off the belt causes more resistance to the movement of the belt. This resistance depends on the magnitude of the friction force between the belt and the plate as well as the length of belt in contact with the plate. Occasionally the skirt plates also cause the material to exert a force on the belt which leads to additional frictional resistance. Other secondary resistances also include the resistance caused by the pulley bearings and the wrap of the belt around the pulleys. Special secondary resistances: Additional systems installed on the belt can also cause resistance to the movement of the belt. The basic operation of belt cleaners leads to friction forces being present between the belt and the material as well as between the material and cleaners. These friction forces, combined with the forces of the discharge ploughs, impose an additional load that need to be overcome. The inversion of the belt at the head and tail causes resistance to movement due to the combined effect of the flexure of the belt material and the friction of the pulleys. When designing a long conveyor belt system, the magnitude of the primary resistances generally exceeds the magnitude of the secondary resistances. To simplify the resistance calculations, the secondary resistances are simply accounted for by means of a correction factor on the primary resistances. C = 0.85 + 13.31L-0.576 for 10 < L < 1500 C = 1.025 for 1500 < L < 5000 L Conveying length [m] When this factor has bee

Skydiving Essay -- Extreme Sports Skydive essays research papers

Why do we skydive?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Skydiving has been around since ancient Chinese times as a form of aerial stunts. Leonardo da Vinci and the Chinese are both credited for creating the parachute, but it was really in the 18th century when France both created it and used it by basically throwing themselves out of planes. Little did anyone know that skydiving would be one of the craziest sports today. Jumping out of a plane two and a half miles up into the sky would not be someone’s idea of a normal day. As bad as two and a half miles up in the sky is, try doing it traveling at a rate of one-hundred and sixty miles per hour with just a parachute to save you. To many people this would be a nightmare; but to some of us, it is the biggest thrill of our lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people will sit and tell me that I am crazy for jumping out of a plane. I would just sit and tell them a quote I heard before I did my jump. â€Å"Skydivers know why the birds sing.† The experience doesn’t feel like you’re falling out of a plane, yet more like you are flying. Once you pull the parachute, the result is the most calming feeling. Words cannot even express it. You are totally relaxed and inspired after that chute is pulled.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another reason why someone would jump out of a plane is that it actually is a stress reliever. You can still call divers crazy; but once you are up in the air flying, you are going to be stress free. The dive inspires such a complete focus of attention that all other worries, aggravatio...

Breakfast cereal market analysis

The term â€Å"breakfast cereals† covers a wide variety of grain products that are usually cooked or processed to improve their texture, flavor and digestibility. Although these products are often made from flours, they differ from breads and other baked goods in that they are not usually leavened; instead they may be toasted to crispiness like crackers. The modern ready-to eat breakfast cereals are only about 100 years old.They owe their development to the Seventh Day Adventists, an American religious sect for whom Dr. JH Kellogg invented a granola-like ready-to-eat breakfast cereal/ later Dr.  JH Kellogg and his brother WK Kellogg founded the cereal company which still bears their name. Interestingly yet another pioneer of the industry was CW Post who had been a patient and ate Dr. JH Kellogg’s cereal and was inspired by it enough to make his own version of the product.The establishment of the breakfast cereal industry came about the time the United States began a t ransition from a predominantly agricultural society to a more industrialized urban culture. A strong selling point of the ready-to- eat cereal was and still is, is their convenience (Ensminger, Konlande, 1993, p.261-262). There seems to be indication that there will be steady increase in the consumption of commercial cereal products around the world as the developing countries attempt to feed their burgeoning population. The present paper presents an analysis of the Breakfast cereal industry as well as market. Characteristics of the Breakfast cereal industry Brand History Breakfast cereals are not a homogenous product. The ready-to-eat breakfast cereal industry may be characterized by relatively low economies of scale and relatively low levels of technology.In other words, the entry into this industry is easy. Between the 1950s and the 1970s there was no entry of new firms in the industry even though all the incumbent firms such as Kellogg, General Mills, General Foods and Quaker Oa ts, made significant profits. Later however, there was the entry of new low-end companies in the markets and the number of brands sold by these firms also increased substantially from 25 to more than 80, and this number is still on a rise (Cabral, 2000, p. 265-266). Pricing trends For decades the breakfast cereal market was one of the most profitable in the United States.The industry had a consolidated structure dominated by Kellogg, General Mills and Kraft Foods with its Post brand. Strong brand loyalty, coupled with control over the allocation of supermarket shelf space, helped to limit the potential for new entry. Meanwhile the steady demand growth of around 3% per annum kept the industry revenues expanding. Also Kellogg, which accounted for over 40 percent of the market share, acted as the price leader in the industry for years in the industry. Every year Kellogg increased cereal prices, its rivals followed and industry profits too remained high.However, this favorable structure started to change in the early 1990s when the growth in demand slowed and then stagnated as the lifestyle and hence food patterns changed and the market saw the rise of powerful discounters such as Wal-Mart that started promoting their own brand of cereal. As sales of cheaper store-brand cereals began to take-ff, supermarkets no longer were as dependent on brand names to bring in traffic and hence they started to demand lower prices from the branded cereal manufacturers.Initially, the branded cereal manufacturers tried to hold against these adverse trends. However, in 1996 Kraft which was then owned by Philip Morris aggressively cut prices by 20 % for its Post brand in am attempt to gain market share. Kellogg son followed with a 19 percent price cut on two-third of its brands and General Mills quickly did the same. However, this too did not change the consumption pattern the growth rates of which remained flat and revenues then started going down for all the branded cereals (Hill, Jones, 2009, p. 52).The trend continued in 2000s also and the situation worsened with the private-label sales continuing to make inroads, gaining over 10 percent of the market. To top it all off, the sales of breakfast cereals started to contract at 1 percent per annum and the period between 1998-2001 saw the market leader Kellogg sliding down to the 2nd position for the first time in its history since its inception in 1906, by General Mills that continued to launch expensive price and promotion campaigns. To cover the rising cost General Mills raised prices in 2001 and competitors soon followed the trend.However, both Kellogg and General Mills tried to move further away from price competition in the industry by diversifying and focusing on brand extensions such as Special K on the behalf of Kellogg and new varieties of Cheerios. Special K was instrumental and helping Kellogg recapturing its market leadership position from General Mills and this renewed focus on non-price competitio n halted years of damaging price warfare (Hill, Jones, 2009, p. 52). Target markets The breakfast cereal industry targets several diverse markets but focuses upon two large ones namely the baby boomers and their children.Since a high proportion of the baby boomers are highly educated, health appeals are paramount. Thus many brands have placed emphasis on various types of oat-bran cereal. The other sizeable market, targeted to children is also highly developed. Various brands have successfully used sports personality and trade characters such as Tony the Tiger to attract the children towards their products and retain brand loyalty. The breakfast cereal industry has been adept at target market segmentation and promoting favorable brand images.The strategy of the overall industry especially Kellogg, the market leader, has been to provide a comprehensive assortment for the retailers targeting specific market segments (Michman, Mazze, 1999, p. 109-111) Competition Breakfast cereal indust ry faces competition from hand-held breakfast products such as bagels, muffins, doughnuts etc. These have in fact led to a decrease in the growth of the breakfast cereal industry. The industry also faces competition from frozen waffles, pancakes, and French toast brands which have proved to be a concern both in the past and the present.Many analysts consider that the competition is due to the change in dietary habits, though some also say that this has been due to th increase in cereal prices for the branded segment (Michman, Mazze, 1999, p. 112-113). Advertisements and Promotional activities From the time of WH Kellogg, the breakfast cereal industry has been dependent on marketing strategies and expensive promotions. In fact in 1909 itself the advertisement budget of Kellogg had reached 1 million per annum. Needless to say this is a major problem in the industry which has become price sensitive in present times.This activity has led to a decrease in profits and considering that the market share has not increased since the 1990s, this has become even more of a problem. There were also many insufficiencies generated by coupons and in-store promotions. For instance, more than 95 percent of the cereal coupons were thrown away and not redeemed and approximately half of the promotional expenditures did not reach the consumers in the form of lower prices. Because of these inefficiencies, as well as congressional investigations and competitive treats, the breakfast cereal industry has moved to lower prices.As the returns earned by the cereal manufacturers exceed most other grocery products, there is fierce competition among manufacturers (Michman, Mazze, 1999, p. 113-114). Factors contributing to success and failure There are a combination of variables that contribute to the successes and failure of the breakfast cereal industry. These variables and strategies include innovation, target-market segmentation, image, physical environment resources, and human resources. Such factors must be combined in various degrees for success. The breakfast cereal industry has shown innovation in product and packaging strategies.In addition to this, breakfast snack bars are a new innovation. The image of the breakfast cereal industry has been positive enough to withstand the assault of private-label brand sot a large extent. Also cereal manufacturers with their successful track records and huge advertisement budgets do not have much difficulty in convincing retailers to give their new product introduction a chance. In 1970s, Kellogg designed shelf space allocation programs for supermarkets. Sophisticated computers and programs developed by members of the breakfast cereal industry now help to allocate shelf space according to turnover.The breakfast cereal industry has also been successful in designing packaging for shipping and for display purposes. To sell their product brands and retain the company brand value, the breakfast cereal manufacturers have developed the strategy that links the brand name to the company name instead to identifying brand products by their individual brand names. For instance, Kellogg’s Rice Krispies and Special K, as well as General Mills’ Total Raisin Bran and Total Corn Flakes use this strategy. To fend off private brand competition by offering product line depth and high brand identification (Michman, Mazze, 1999, p. 114-115).

Public Fear of Terrorism

IntroductionTerrorism has become a global challenge, which must be fought by collaborative efforts.   Indeed the war against terrorism takes many forms and shapes.   For instance while traditionally the homeland security has been concerned with fighting terrorism from a military point of view; there is a need for it to be empowered to better deal with terrorism from different dimensions. A new challenge is emerging; that is, the way the media is handling the terrorism and especially how it reports and covers terrorism incidences.Media plays a very important role in shaping public opinion in many issues including terrorism.   Media coverage of terrorist activities shapes how terrorism events are constructed in the minds of the public.   Of late there are clear indications of general fear in the public to the extent that, whatever the media reports, is seen as a representation of the real situation on the ground.   There is alot of freedom in the media. With so many freelance journalists who are eager to make an extra dime at the expense of the general public.Indeed, there is little control over the journalists especially the freelance journalists.   The criminal justice has little control over the sifting of information to the general public.   The seemingly free-flow for news in the media means that, whoever comes out with the ‘best’ news is likely to receive the most attention.   The craving for news has seen the freelance journalists keen on making quick money violate journalism code of conduct and therefore failing to put into consideration professionalism but become only concerned about getting the most enticing news.Unlike in the past when the media would take the time to censor the news they released to the public, nowadays some television channels air some uncensored images.   This has greatly impacted negatively on the media authenticity.   Some media houses are less concerned about the moral implications of such images to the general public. Irresponsible coverage of terrorism activities affects the public by inflicting fear amongst the public especially the uncensored images and broadcasts zoomed by television channels and the internet.   The consistency with which such images are aired has also come to have a bearing on the increased fear levels amongst the general public.Indeed most media houses flout media rules and are only concerned with getting the mission accomplished.   The criminal justice has largely become incapable of reigning on the media.   This can be explained by lack of effective laws to deal with emerging challenges.   One area where law enforcers are facing challenges when it comes to reigning on offenders who violate the media laws is the fact that, some of the sources of the media images and reports which turn out to have negative effect on the general public originate outside the US and those local media houses which air them bear no responsibility as they act as thi rd parties and are in no way responsible for the contents of the reports (White, Jonathan, 2006).With globalization the world has become a small village whereby information is exchanged within a very short time. As a result, most of the information which reaches the American public, does not necessarily originate within America media.   The truth of the matter is that, Americans have a choice to tune into any media channel they feel free to. This is not in any way regulated by the state and as such, what the public consumes in terms of information cannot be filtered by state law enforcement agents (Nicholas, William, 2005).Taking the example of international media houses, which broadcast, to the whole world, they are in the first place not bound by the American laws nor can the American public be denied access to such.   As a result, whatever information they broadcast concerning terrorism ends up being consumed by the American public.   This is very hard to regulate.   The advancement of the Internet has brought with it very complex challenges especially in terms of authenticity.It is very hard to know which source to trust.   With the craving for news, the public tends to search for any site, whether incredible or not which purports to inform the public.   There are many bogus websites which go to the lengths of capturing live some terrible terrorism activities such as beheading of those captured by terrorists.   As a result, this has really formed a great avenue for fear amongst the general American public.   In addition, there are not many programs or efforts designed to pre-empty the propaganda which some websites linked to terrorists desire to perpetrate in the American public.The other major problem is the fact that, the laws governing the internet use are at best lax and are not effective to deal with those who decide to use the internet as a media of perpetrating fear amongst the general American public.   Efforts of the government t o curb the use of Internet as a propaganda tool led to the introduction of amendments to the privacy acts.   As a result, the government has come under fierce criticism for infringing on the rights of people to access information.   This shows how challenging the fight against the phenomenon has become.In addition the media has strong unions here in the US which means that, it is not easy for the criminal justice to intervene even in cases where it is evident that, the media is causing a great measure of suffering to the public through the broadcasting of information which is uncensored.   The homeland security has a duty to intervene in the dilemma but only to the extent whereby the source of such negligence lies within its jurisdiction.   Globalization and a culture of consumerism in the American society makes it impossible for the homeland security to impose any meaningful checks and balances to protect Americans from suffering from the fear that has gripped the general A merican public (Nakaya, Andea, 2005). Indeed, the public cannot be practically protected from the effects of bad media practices today.   It is up to the public to learn to choose what they can listen to or watch.Recommendation for solving the above problem include; the enactment of tough laws which would see only the most professional media houses get the licence to broadcast in the US.   In addition the homeland security should engage in awareness campaigns meant to make the public to understand that, not every media source has credible and correct coverage on terrorism and that some media sources are actually being used by terrorists for propaganda purposes and believing in them is giving credibility to the terrorists.   In conclusion, there is a need for the criminal justice to work with the information department to reign on the media houses which if unchecked are likely to continue inflicting fear on the public and therefore affect public support on the war against terro rism.ReferenceNakaya, Andea, C. Ed (2005).   Homeland Security.   Detroit:   Greenhaven Press pp. 191.Nicholas, William C. ed. (2005). Homeland Security Law and policy.   Springfield.   Pp. 377.White, Jonathan. (2006). Terrorism and Homeland Security.   Wadsworth (5th ed.).   California:   Thomson.